Local Law Enforcement’s Role in Anti-terrorism and Home Land Security

The intensity of the September 11 attacks on American soil led to massive destruction of property, besides leaving thousands of innocent civilians dead. To many, the attacks revealed just how vulnerable the United States was to the cruel hand of global terrorism. The lessons learnt from the tragic incidences prompted immediate action on the part of the federal authorities, culminating in what became known as the war on terror whose overall objective was to completely eliminate, or at least minimize the potential danger posed by terrorists and terrorist organizations spread all over the globe. Beginning then, the fight against terrorism has become a shared responsibility, with various security, intelligence and law enforcement agencies involved in checking terrorist activity. Some of the major responsibilities include have included training on technologies such as airborne insertion equipment, rescuing hostages and using anti-terrorist weaponry. Although most of these have been assigned to specialized task forces such as the military and the Delta force, a critical evaluation also depicts the local enforcement agencies as instrumental in fighting terrorism and enhancing national security. Indeed, the attacks led to a significant redefinition of the role that federal, state, as well as local law enforcement authorities ought to play in as far as the prevention and interdiction of terrorist activity in the U. S. is concerned (Middlemiss and Gupta, 2007). Besides the traditional role of acting as critical incident managers and first responders, these agencies have been assigned a new task: that of handling the uncertainties occasioned by the threat of terrorism. The Role Played By Local Police Agencies in the Fight against Terrorism. As opposed to the military whose main preoccupation is that of protecting the country from eternal aggression, the main domain of local law enforcement agencies lies in the provision of homeland security. Due to the numerous security connections that state and local officials have established with institutions such as the Intelligence Community and the society in general, they usually tend to have an upper hand in detecting and preventing terrorist activity (Sauter and Carafano, 2005). It is in view of this reality that governments within the state and local levels have since embarked on an initiative of establishing antiterrorism and counterterrorism programs. The former entails the defensive or passive strategies employed to curb terrorism, while the latter involves proactive measures such as pursuing terrorist perpetrators and supporters (Sauter and Carafano, 2005, p. 261). In essence, the failure of such initiative to suffice in equipping law enforcement personnel with the basic as well as specialized skills of fighting terrorism implies that the local law enforcers assisted by other personnel would be the in the forefront should a terrorist attack occur. A preliminary study carried out by the Police Executive Research Forum in 2001 found that the local police played a vital responsibility in critical incidence response, information and intelligence sharing, enhancement of community stability after a major incident, and the establishment of multi-agency task forces (Police Executive Research Forum, 2003). However, one of the most remarkable findings of the survey was the strong belief expressed by these law enforcement agents: that they were now faced with an expanded role of terrorism prevention in such subfields as increasing community policing systems, intelligence gathering and information-sharing with the civilian fraternity. Nevertheless, training and conversancy with the nature of global terrorism as well as the need for upgrading terrorist attack-preparedness emerged as critical components if these agencies are to perform a greater role in antiterrorism initiatives. Since 2001, the role of local law enforcement agencies in the fight against terrorism has been transformed from a relatively amorphous form into a more distinct one with specific responsibilities and tasks. One of the areas in which the local police have continued to play is in the domain of terrorism prevention. In essence, the very complex nature of terrorism and terrorist groups makes it impossible for the federal law enforcers to effectively handle the threat posed by global terrorism. Working in close collaboration with the local communities, the local law enforcers have played a critical role of collecting vital information on personalities suspected to have links to terrorist groups. A critical evaluation depicts these agencies as better placed to make a objective assessment of community security fears and concerns identified as critical in effective fathering of intelligence information, particularly considering the ability of community policing to engage citizens, foster collective problem solving, and encourage information sharing based on mutual trust (Middlemiss and Gupta, 2007). By receiving and sharing information with state as well as federal agents while at the same time maintaining confidentiality especially in reference to sensitive information, the local police have been, and continue to be of great help in the fight against terrorism. Other terrorism prevention initiatives that they could be involved in include the identification, evaluation and reduction of the terrorist threat posed to local targets (Sauter and Carafano, 2005). Another domain in which the local law enforcement agencies should be actively involved in is in the domain of critical incident prevention, preparations and response (). One of the traditional roles in which the local police have been involved in is preparing and promptly responding to disasters such as Katrina. With the increasing threat of global terrorism however, such an approach has similarly been transferred to terrorist operations. Such efforts have included initiatives geared towards the derivation of early warning systems to detect the possibility of a terrorist attack. However, this role has also been expanded to security operations enhancement as well as establishing emergency medical teams. Besides, they have been involved in the establishment and implementation of local critical incident plans essential in the evaluation of the various waves of domestic and global terrorism (). However, the successful management of terrorist scenes requires that the local police work in close collaboration with state and federal agencies. Although numerous precautionary measures have been undertaken to prevent terrorist attacks similar to 9/11, the possibility of another attack, either by a foreign or domestic organization can not be ruled. As witnessed in 2001, such deadly attacks cause unprecedented trauma on those involved or their relatives. Thus, the local law enforcement agencies have to work closely with the local leaderships and the community in general in ensuring that such individuals recover from post-terrorist trauma. This could involve adopting effective strategies to alleviate the fear of potential attacks in future. In addition, the local police have to brace themselves with the complex security expectations that the affected community may place, including the provision of information and other extra services (Lyons, 2002). Besides the maintenance of manpower skilled in handling various terrorist challenges, local law jurisdictions have the responsibility of availing the resources necessary to implement antiterrorism and counterterrorism initiatives. Indeed, the reallocation of existing resources as well as the identification of new ones goes a long way in improving the security-preparedness of state and local officials (Sauter and Carafano, 2005). Such resources have been deployed to upgrade the capabilities of old security units in addition to establishing new ones. However, majority of the state and local authorities have increasingly faced numerous counterterrorism budget constrains which have posed as significant obstacles in the initiatives aimed at scaling up security measures. A number of these security initiatives have been funded by the federal government. Notably, the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security was aimed at consolidating most of the federal aid inclined to homeland security within the new department under the Office of State and Local Government Coordination and Preparedness (Sauter and Carafano, 2005, p. 64). Some of the activities currently funded include the provision of equipment as well as training of officers on domestic counterterrorist procedures and activities. Nevertheless, the limited funds availed have sometimes precipitated a reduction of existing security functions, for instance, redirecting local intelligence fraternity from the traditional role of unraveling organized crime to that of countering terrorist activity. Conclusion. Although relative calm has been witnessed since the 2001 attacks on American soil, the fight against terrorism is far from over. This calls for concerted efforts amongst all the stakeholders involved. Based on past experience, the local law enforcement agencies can indeed play a pivotal role in the antiterrorism and counterterrorism initiatives. These not only include the initiation of preventive strategies, but also extend to prompt response during actual attacks, as well trauma management. However, various factors continue to present insurmountable challenges in the realization of this noble mission. Particularly, a significant number of local law enforcement agencies still grapple with the reality of maintaining a balance between the fight against terrorism on the one hand and deterrence, and prevention of other crimes on the other. In essence therefore, greater federal support and cooperation is essential in supplementing the efforts of local law enforcement agencies.

Gregor Samsa as the Existentialist Hero essays

Gregor Samsa as the Existentialist Hero essays When Gregor Samsa woke up one morning from unsettling dreams, he found himself changed in his bed into a monstrous vermin (The Metamorphosis, 3). So begins Franz Kafkas masterpiece, "The Metamorphosis," written in 1912. This work can be viewed as an exploration of the outcast in European society. It was written in German, rather than Czech, by a Jew in a chiefly Catholic country with an extensive history of anti-Semitism. Therefore, since Kafkas fiction is set in an alternate reality that is threatening, one always has the sense of an individual unfairly trapped in an absurd world, as he was. The weirdness of this transformation or change makes us evaluate Gregors role as the symbolic prototype of the Existential hero because the story was written from an existentialist viewpoint, proven by its emphasis on loneliness, isolation, and the autonomy of ones existence. Gregor lived in an absurd world full of suffering and peculiarity. After Gregor inexplicably woke up one morning as a monstrous vermin, he remarked that he saw no way of bringing peace and order into this mindless motion and that all his efforts to go about his daily routine were for naught (The Metamorphosis, 7). If Gregors predicament is taken to be symbolic of mankinds, then this effort indicates the fundamental struggle of each individual against the alien and hostile world. This fundamental realization that he was entirely helpless in the world came after his reconciliation with the fact that as for adopting another profession, he was not only too old for that but too fanatically devoted to fasting and led him into a deep depression, which led to his death. As the only human bug, Gregor was alone and alienated in his world. Even before his metamorphosis, Gregor was a traveling salesman who was constantly seeing new faces and could have no relati...

8 Places to Practice Italian in Italy

8 Places to Practice Italian in Italy You’ve taken all the community classes your town has to offer, chat with a language partner whenever you can, and listen to Italian music while you drive. Now you’re ready to go to Italy and put all of your hard work into practice. What’s more, you’ve been to the bigger, touristy cities, like Florence, Assisi, and Pisa, which were all lovely, but you want to experience a side of Italy that’s less populated by tour groups and their flags. You want to spend time in a town where very few people speak English or where they’re more willing to play along with you as you figure out this Italian-language thing that you’ve come to love. If that’s you, I’ve put together a short list for you of eight places to visit in Italy if you want to practice your Italian. Of course, there are thousands of towns, large and small, that I could have listed, and no matter where you go, you may still encounter the niece of the proprietor who spent her summer in London and wants to practice her English. I can’t promise you a 100% English-free experience, but I can give you a fighting chance to avoid being â€Å"English-ed.† 8 Places to Visit in Italy If You Want to Practice Italian Northern Italy 1. Bergamo Bergamo is a city (just over 115k in population) in northern Italy that’s around 45 minutes away from Milan by car. While it has a decent-sized expat community, you’ll find less American influence and more Germanic influence. Past visitors recommend taking a walk at Citt Alta (accessible both by way of the funicolare and walking), visiting Castello di Vigilio, and of course, il Duomo. If you’re looking to try a traditional dish, the recommended one is casonsei alla bergamesca, also called casoncelli alla bergamesca.   2.  Reggio Emilia With just over 163k people, Reggio Emilia is well-populated, but don’t let that fool you. I’ve been assured that there are plenty of opportunities to practice your Italian while also learning how to be buone forchette (good forks- those who eat plenty and well). If you have a full day at your disposal, start new conversations while you gawk at Santiago Calatrava bridges from the station, after having walked quietly through il Tempio della Beata Vergine della Ghiara, and as you lounge in Piazza Prampolini (also called Piazza Grande). Oh, and make sure to try l’erbazzone, a type of pot pie made with simple ingredients that’s famous in the region. For more tips on what to do in Reggio Emilia (and to learn some new Italian vocabulary), check out this article from Tasting the World. 3. Ferrara At just over 359k, Ferrara is no small town, but just like Reggio Emilia, there are numerous chances to stretch your Italian to its limits. If you want to hang out with the farreresi, take a passeggiata along le mura  (the walls), eat il pasticcio di maccheroni (and about 47 other nap-inducing dishes), and then ask for directions to Via delle Volte, a characteristic alleyway of the city. For more tips on where to meet people and speak Italian, check out this article from Viaggiare, uno stile di vita. Central Italy 1. Volterra At just over 10.5k residents, Volterra is the third smallest of the places to visit in Italy to practice your Italian. This borgo in Tuscany has Etruscan origins and yep, it was used as the setting for the second Twilight movie (which, to be accurate, was actually filmed in Montepulciano- a town that made the honorable mentions list down below). If you happen to find yourself in Volterra (whether you came hoping to live the magic of New Moon or not- seriously, no judgment), here are a few suggestions for making sure you open your mouth to speak- and eat, of course. First, to start the day off on a ultra positive note, chat about the devices used while browsing il Museo della Tortura, have some cinghiale alla volterrana for lunch, and then hang out in a local bar with the intention to start as many conversations as possible about calcio.    2. Montefalco You’ll find the tiny town (just over 5.6k in population) in Umbria- one of, I might add, my favorite regions in Italy full of green rolling hills and truffles†¦ but I digress. After visiting the main piazza, buy some pan mostato from a nearby panificio, do a tasting of the Sagrantino di Montefalco, and then check out one of the many pathways that hold the same name. Nearby you can also visit  Spello and Bevagna. 3. Viterbo While Viterbo- the city, not the province- does have some beautiful attractions, like Palazzo Papale and Le Terme, which are hot springs, the real beauty of this city in the Lazio region is in its ordinariness. While there is a university with plenty of international students and an exchange program for Americans, the majority of the people who live there don’t speak English. If you’re hanging out there for the day, go straight from the train station to Pizza DJ and grab a slice of the freshest pizza that you can get. Then, take a walk down the corso, stop in a bar and start a conversation with whoever looks friendly. Before settling down for dinner at either the pizzeria Il Labirinto or pasta at La Spaghetteria- famous for having over 300 types of saucespop in and out of the bookshops or grab a gelato from L’antica Latteria. For more suggestions on what to do in Viterbo, check out this article from Trekity. Southern Italy 1. Scilla This small town, or paese, in Reggio Calabria boasts a population of 5k. Besides having a mythologically-based namethe monster that was transformed by Circeit’s characterized primarily by small alleyways that, when followed, lead directly to the sea and houses next to the water that look perpetually sleepy. Besides eating ridiculously fresh seafood on the terrace of a restaurant, the best way to spend your time here is by visiting il borgo di Chianalea, learning some Calabrian dialect from the locals at the bar, or take a dive and learn all kinds of marine-related vocabulary. 2. Lecce Our final place to visit is Lecce, in Puglia, with a population of just over 94k. You can start your day on the more touristy side by having un caffà ¨ at Caffà ¨ Alvino, right in front of the Anfiteatro, or you can seek out a more local place to start your giornata leccese. Then, take a walk at one of the many beaches, get your fill of museums, and then try some sagne torte, or Sagne ‘ncannulate in dialecta pasta dish. For more suggestions, take a gander at this article from Vacanze Lecce. In the event you’re wanting to visit towns with a bit more activity and practice your Italian, here are five that are touristy, but may still play along with your attempts. 3 Other Italian Places to Practice Italian 1. Orvieto - Umbria: You can more about how you can learn Italian in this city in this article. 2. Montepulciano - Tuscany: If you’re interested in learning Italian here, check out Il Sasso school. 3. Monteverde Vecchio in Rome - Lazio: While Rome can generally be categorized a very English-driven tourist city, there are zones, or neighborhoods, that will humor you when you make your best efforts to speak Italian, and Monteverde Vecchio falls squarely in that department.

Critically analyze Walter Lees Perspectives of the American dream. Why Research Paper

Critically analyze Walter Lees Perspectives of the American dream. Why is Walter determined to achieve the American dream - Research Paper Example Loraine Hansberry, one of the eminent African-American writers, wrote the play ‘A Raisin in the Sun’ in the year 1959. With all the vow of equality since ages, America was not able to establish the term to its truest sense has been well depicted through the play. Experiences of the two generations of the Younger family and their struggles and challenges encountered owing to the laws pertaining to the labor and housing discriminations in America have been made very explicit in the play. The black populace in America genuinely suffered from a hollow vision of American Dream due to the discriminative policies taken by government in the areas of work and stay. The agendas are different for two generations but the oppression remains the same and the contrast of experience in the case of Big Walter Lee as evoked through Mama’s voice in the play with that of Walter Lee’s perspective of American dream as a younger generation definitely helps to build a coherent and concise panorama of American Dream in the Afro-American society of the United States. ‘A Raisin in the Sun’ tries to throw light on the racial issues and impact of those issues on the notion of American Dream covering the agony of almost two generations. This essay intends to present the conflict and contradiction of generations manifested through the comprehension of American Dream by Walter Lee. A close introspection into the plot of the play ‘ A Raisin in the Sun’ launches its readers into a plethora where they get the opportunity to comprehend the hardships and the challenges encountered and undertaken by the African–American labor class from 1920s to 1950s. One must definitely take into consideration about the fact that Loraine Hansberry has covered a great span of time in her play, ‘A Raisin in the Sun’. Walter Lee (younger) is present in the play and the readers are aware of

Menu Selection Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Menu Selection - Research Paper Example This paper discusses some of the important ways to interact with App. Additionally, there are many other types of menus, which have their own advantages and disadvantages, for instance, the pop up menu saves space on the screen as they are not existed physically on the screen. In this way, it provides an advantage to the users that they need to know only the selected area options. Menu-driven interfaces have been becoming more popular due to a number of advantages they provide. Each strategy has its own advantages, however, all advantages of menus are related to the user interaction. In order to attract the user, menu-driven interfaces play their role, as they allow the user to select any option easily. If the user has not selected a right option, then it provides the facility to go back to the previous state. Menu-driven interfaces enhance the usability of the system. Each section has its own color, which helps the user to differentiate between different screens (BBC, 2014). A good user interface, along with the menus, enhance the usability, simplicity, attraction and other factors that become effective due to the presence of nice menu-driven right according to the user requirements as well as the user interests (Digital Zoo, 2014). Menu-driven interfaces basically follow some fundamental principles of a good interface, which are right according to the users’ demands and requirements regarding any type of menu strategy design. These principles are: the structure principles, visibility principles, feedback principles, tolerance principles, and reuse principle (Ward, 2013). Menu-driven interface hides the complexity in the background, and users can check only those options, which they want to check. And the most important thing is the aesthetic sense of these menus, as they are pleasing to eyes. As the number of websites and applications are resulting in an increasing number of users, where there are several kinds of users, like novice user and

Evaluating Websites Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Evaluating Websites - Essay Example It is a very motivating website for the kids of grade 1 and grade 2 and it is sure to intrigue them. There are several mathematical concepts that have been described very well on this website and the same can be incorporated from this website. It will simply things for the young students. This website is ideal for grade 2 and grade 3 students and it is little advanced than the first website, it talks about noble prize, flags of different countries, various animals and a host of other stuff. The special feature about this website is its trivia; it is intriguing and makes learning very easy. It can teach the students a lot and hence it should be shown to the students in order to ensure that the students learn a lot of new concepts. This is a very advanced level website and it can even be shown to the 5th grade students, it offers a lot of help on subjects like math, science, social studies. It also provides a lot of information on computers, this adds to the utility of this website. The other websites mentioned above don't offer much help on computers but this website is different and hence it should be shown to the students. This website is very useful when it comes to learning English, it offers a variety of stories to choose from. All the stories have intriguing pictures on them and this is a good way of luring the students to read these stories. This website can of good use to the students, this will surely make their language skills sharper and better than never before. This is why this website must be used in the class. Grade5: Kids.Yahoo Link: http://kids.yahoo.com/science Subject: Science This is another very interesting website and certainly the most matured of all the other websites. This website throws light upon concepts like the movement of planets and other related material. It should be shown in the class in order to explain abstruse concepts and in order to make the students understand those abstruse concepts easily. This website has a lot to offer and it must be shown to the students in order to ensure that they learn new concepts with interest.

Impact of Work-Related Stress, and Treatment

Impact of Work-Related Stress, and Treatment Stress as the modern day back pain Abstract It has been estimated by MIND, the mental health charity, that in excess of five million people in the United Kingdom are suffering such an extreme level of work related stress as to put them at risk of a complete breakdown (cited in Laurence 2005). The pressures on individuals suffering from stress frequently results in them being absent from work although, whilst they remain in work there are effects on the level of accidents and the productivity rates. With the significant financial loss that this gives business, it would be expected that managers are highly proactive in reducing the causes and effects of stress. This report sets out to determine if this is true and to measure people’s knowledge of stress, their awareness of its prevalence and the ways in which it is being controlled. The research suggests that managers have very little knowledge of any of these areas. Despite the increasing level of publicity in both the public and professional press, the problem of stress remains unmonitored and its effects inaccurately measured by the majority of the companies questioned. The guidelines produced by the Health and Safety Executive and the legal requirements under the Health and Safety at Work Act have seemingly had no impact on organisations. Failure to recognise and address the issue of work-related stress will, therefore, lead to it becoming a blight on British industry, being misunderstood, unchecked and poorly measured, as the problem of non-specific back pain was for much of the second half of the last century. The costs of work-related stress are well reported. The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work reports that over 40 million days a year are lost to British industry because of stress-related problems (Health and Safety Executive 2004). A recent report by the mental health charity, MIND, states that more than five million people in the United Kingdom are suffering such as extreme level of work related stress as to put them at risk of a complete breakdown (cited in Laurence 2005).Their report goes on to say that for every  £10 generated in the economy,  £1 is lost due to stress related issues and that â€Å"less than 10% of companies have a policy to deal with it† (cited in Laurence 2005pg. 16). ACAS report the Health and Safety Executives findings of 1995 that the cost to society of work related stress was  £3.7 billion. Lord Layard reported to a Government seminar more recently that he estimates the current costs to be  £25 billion (cited in Laurence 2005). It is noted that they do not define what is included in these costs. The most recent statistics show that disability claims due to mental and behavioural disorders has risen from 28% of the total claims submitted in 1997, to 37% in 2003 and is expected to continue to rise (Personnel Today magazine 2005). The subject of stress is appearing more often in both the popular press and professional publications. O’Driscoll et al refer to the work offset and Schuler who suggest that there are four main reason for this: â€Å"concern for individual employee health†¦the financial impact on organisations†¦organisational effectiveness and legal obligations on employers to provide safe and healthy work environments† (O’Driscollet al 2002 pg 188). The question remains as to how organisations are monitoring, reducing and managing the stress experienced by their employees and how they can improve in these areas. Literature Review Stress is not a new phenomenon. It was first identified in 1910 by Sir William Osler who identified that some patients appeared to be under strain during medical treatment. In was not until 1936 that a specific definition of stress as a reaction to a demand on a person was reported by Selly (O’Driscoll et al 2002). A major period of research was in the1950s, when Lazarus et al examined the effects of stress on work performance. McGrath noted that stress is due to â€Å"environmental demands exceeding a person’s resources and capacity, when the outcomes are important for the person† (cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002 pg 190) and French et al formalised the role of the environment in stress by saying that â€Å"strain can result from the mismatch between the person and the environment on dimensions important to the well-being of the individual† (cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002 pg 190). Lazarus continued his work to examine the three phases of cognitive appraisal of stress. He identified that these are primary – the initial reaction to a risk, secondary the assessment of how to overcome the source and reappraisal judging whether or not the reaction to the source of stress was successful (cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002). This work was important as it initiated more investigations into coping mechanisms. Behr and Franz’s work differentiated between the concept of stressors as â€Å"the environmental stimulus or event† and strains â€Å"the person’s response to the stimulus or event† (cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002 pg192) and this differentiation became and has remained important when looking at how to reduce stress in the workplace (Fontana 1989). It is recognised that stress is a natural aspect of life, but also that work-related stress is becoming global in nature and affects both manual and professional staff in industrialised and developing countries. The University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology have measured certain jobs as being prone to more than 6 one stress scale rating of 1 to 10. These include miner, police officer and prison officer (Health and Safety Executive 2004). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is the American equivalent of the UK’s Health and Safety Executive. NIOSH is a Federal agency responsible for â€Å"conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related illness and injury†(Saunter et al 1999). Their report, publication number 99-101, cites three statistics to illustrate the problem of work-related stress in the USA. Northwester National Life found that work is the main stressor for a quarter of people, Princeton Survey Research Associates report that three quarters of workers think there is more stress at work than the previous generation experienced and St Paul Fire and Marine Insurance found that health complaints are much more likely to be duet factors associated with work than with family or financial problems(Saunter et al 1999). This leads us to determine the exact nature of stress. Fontana makes the point that it is not so much â€Å"the events that determine whether we’re stressed or not, as our reaction to them†(Fontana 1989 pp. 3). He goes on to call individual’s reaction to potentially stressful situations as a result of their cognitive appraisal of the situation i.e. what one person sees as being stressful, someone else will not. He cites the philosopher, Epictetus, who said â€Å"men are not disquieted by things themselves, but by their idea if things† (Fontana 1989 pg. 63). The Health and Safety Executive echo this view in defining stress as â€Å"the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed on them† (Sautà © ret al 1999). Similarly, the European Commission’s definition is: â€Å"the emotional, cognitive, behavioural and psychological reaction to aversive and noxious aspects of work, work environments and work organisations. It is a state characterised by high levels of arousal and stress and often by feelings of not coping† (Health and Safety Executive 2004). Selly noted that stress is not always a detrimental emotion. He defined the difference between â€Å"eustress†, which is seen as positive, motivating and challenging circumstances, which give people an opportunity to stretch themselves and achieve self-satisfaction, and â€Å"distress†, which is where people cannot cope (cited in Foot et al1999). Within the human resources professional publications, it is frequently cited that there is no actual definition of stress or its symptoms as it is not a recognised medical term (Personnel Today magazine 2005).However, several writers have described the body’s reaction to stress and the effects it has. Fontana defines stress as the demand on the adaptive capacity of the body and mind and highlights that too little of this demand leads to boredom and under stimulation, whereas too much results in being overstretched and overwhelmed. When faced with a challenge, the natural reaction of the body is that of fight or flight – either standing the ground and confronting the source of the challenge or by strategically withdrawing. This fight or flight reaction is meant to be a short term, immediate reaction to perceived danger as a method of survival. If its allowed to continue, it can have an adverse effect. As Fontana points out, â€Å"our modern society doesn’t usually allow us physically to fight or run away when we face stressors so that we are allowed to relax. We remain in a state of preparedness for action which we aren’t permitted to take† (Fontana 1989 pp. 6). The body’s responses to stress can be divided into four categories. Firstly, several chemicals are released into the bloodstream including adrenalin, no radelin, thyroid hormones and cholesterol. These stimulate the body through increasing the reflex rate and increasing the blood supply and blood sugar levels to increase the metabolism. However, if this increase in metabolism is not dissipated through physical activity, it can increase the likelihood of heart disease, strokes and kidney disease and aggravate diabetes (Fontana 1989). A racing metabolism can lead to tiredness and exhaustion. The second response is the redirection of blood from those organs which can cope with this forth short term, such as the skin and the stomach, to the air passages in the lungs to increase the aeration of the blood to feed the muscles. Again, if this continues over an extended period of time it can resulting digestive problems, bouts of unconsciousness and malfunctions of the body’s natural temperature control mechanism. The third reaction is an increase in concentration abilities. This is caused by the release of endorphins and cortisone which lowers the body’s natural immunity system and decreases the body’s sensitivity to pain. Again, over the long term, this can result in increased susceptibility to infection, ulcers and extreme allergies. Finally, because the blood thickens to accelerate the clotting process in the case of injury, it also becomes more difficult to move round the body, putting pressure on the heart and possibly leading to heart disease and str okes (Fontana 1989). The phenomenon of â€Å"burn out† is described by Malachi as the state where â€Å"emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation of others in the work context, and feelings of low personal accomplishment on the job† lead to an inability to function in the work environment (cited in O’Driscoll teal 2002 pg. 202) and is seen as the end result of unchecked stress. The causes of stress may come from several sources. Work is seen by many as being a primary source. General organisational problems include insufficient or poorly communicated process and procedures, unclear roles and responsibilities and a lack of basic tools and facilities. A lack of support functions which are often viewed as non-essential, not only increases the workload of individuals who have to do more in their day-to-day activities, but can also lead to feelings of worthlessness. The increased tendency to long or unsociable hours can not only affect the body’s natural circadian rhythm, but can make it difficult to establish and maintain those things which people find help to diffuse their stress e.g. relationships and hobbies. Lack of prospects in apposition can be stressful, although, as will be discussed later, thesis not the case for everyone. A lack of job security is seen as an initiator of stress and becomes particularly significant during a time of change when other stressor may be encountered such as having to alter established work routines and methods. Apart from these general organisational problems, there are a whole host of specific conditions which lead to high levels of stress (Fontana 1989). NIOSH summarise these as: â€Å"the design of tasks, management style, interpersonal relationships, work roles, career concerns and environmental conditions† (cited in Saunter et al 1999). NIOSH relate a list of eighteen work-related areas that can produce stress (cited in Saunter teal 1999). These are referred to in more depth later in the report. What also needs to be taken into account are the sources of stress outside the workplace which lead to the symptoms being displayed whilst artwork. These include domestic problems and also more deeply seated psychological issues such as obsessionality, sensation seeking and over-identification (Fontana 1989). It has been suggested that certain personality types are more susceptible to stress. Commonly used is the distinction between Type And Type B people, as initially defined by Cooper and Bram well (cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002). Fontana describes this distinction impersonality types as being generally accepted by psychologists and medical doctors. A Type A person displays the characteristics of competitiveness, impatience and inflexibility. They work better when given tough deadlines and will tend to take a leadership role. They set themselves high standards to achieve and our highly self-critical if they don’t achieve them. Although Fontana does not provide details, he claims that Type A people are more likely to develop heart disease and high blood pressure. He goes on to suggest that Type A people are more likely to be susceptible to stress as they are highly competitive and â€Å"mobilised almost permanently for action† (Fontana 1989 pg. 72). Other writers, Gangster and Schaubroeck 1991, Haskins, Baglioni and Cooper1990 and Froggatt and Cotton, all cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002,debate whether Type A people are subject to increased stress because they put themselves in more situations that can be deemed as being stressful because of their competitive nature, or that they are more likely to experience stress in any given situation NIOSH report that whilst some employers believe that remain competitive in the economy, organisations need to exert pressure on their employees to maximise productivity and reduce costs, research shows that organisational performance is adversely impacted by th e increase absenteeism, error rates and poor motivation. Similarly, they have found that those organisations that incorporate policies that encourage good health in employees showed a corresponding healthiness in their competitiveness in the economy (cited in Saunter et al 1999). This differentiation as to the relative importance of environmental factors over personality traits has remained an important factor in stress research and, consequently, the approaches to managing stress in the workplace. Ivancevich et al suggest three approaches to managing organisational stress. These are: â€Å"reduce the number or intensity of stressors experienced by employees, help employees modify their appraisal of the stressfulness of the situation or help employees in coping more effectively with stressors and their consequences† (cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002 pg 213). Kahn and Bossier, 1992, identified that the majority of action taken in relation to stress occurred at the second level i.e. involved in changing the way people viewed stressful situations through training and employee assistance programmes (EAPs),rather than trying to remove the actual source of the strain (cited in O’Driscoll et al 2002 pg 213). O’Driscoll (2002) argues that the evidence for the effectiveness of these programmes is limited and that there are questionable benefits to training employees to be able to cope with poor working conditions or practices. Despite this, NIOSH report that nearly half of large companies in the United Sates offer stress management training to their employees, usually involving such topics as time management and relaxation techniques. They point out that these types of interventions have only a short-term effect on the symptoms of stress as well as emphasising the need to alleviate the root causes of the stress (cited in Saunter et al 1999). Elkin and Rosh have put forward a number of actions that could be taken to resolve the stress at source. These include task redesign, allowing flexible work patterns, empowerment of employees and reviewing reward systems to ensure they are equitable. Evaluations of these interventions are reported by O’Driscoll as being positive, but he goes on to emphasise that their use has been limited (O’Driscoll et al2002). Burke noted that the â€Å"removal or reduction of stressors is the most direct way to reduce stress since it deals with the source† (Burke1993 pg. 85). Whilst he does concede that â€Å"these approaches may entail immediate costs for the organisation†, he also notes that â€Å"these will be offset by long-term benefits not only for individual employees but also the organisation as a whole† (Burke 1993 pg. 85). NIOSH recommends combined approach, as even if the causes of stress for the majority of employees were removed, because of individual appraisal of stressors, it would be impossible to remove them all. They also emphasise the need for the size and nature of the organisation to be taken into consideration, as what is possible and desirable for a large multinational may not be appropriate or practical for a small enterprise (cited in Saunter et al 1999). NIOSH identify that the three main factors required for an individual to be able to â€Å"reduce the effects of stressful work conditions† are: â€Å"balance between work and family or personal life, a support network of friends and co-workers and a relaxed and positive outlook† (cited insurer et al 1999). They also advocate a basic programme to initiate actress prevention programme. This involves awareness building for all employees, securing the support and commitment of the senior management team, seeking an utilising employee input to all areas of the programme and ensuring the technical skills of stress management are incorporated through training specific employees of using the resources of consultants. They see employee involvement as being particularly useful when looking at the job design causes of stress and the employee have first-hand knowledge of the tasks (cited in Saunter et al 1999). The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 and the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations of 1999 made employers legally bound to undertake risk assessments in the workplace to identify the potential hazards and to take measures to reduce them. Within the definition of potential hazards was stress. As there remained some confusion as tithe nature and causes of stress, the HSE developed a series of standards to be used by employers to identify and manage the key causes of stress at work. These are: â€Å"the demands made on employees, the level of control employees have over their work, the support employees receive from managers and colleagues, the organisational policies in place, the clarity of the employees role within the organisation, the nature of relationships at work and the way that change is managed†(ACAS 2004). In the second half of the last century, a common problem for businesses was the amount of absence from work due to no specific back pain. As it’s difficult to prove that someone is not suffering from back pain, concerns existed as to how it could be controlled. It is suggested that, not only may work-related stress take this position as the main cause of absence from work, but also that the two conditions are related. Occupational Health magazine has reported the findings of research which indicates that musculo skeletal disorders (MSDs) are one of the most common symptoms of stress (Occupational Health 2004). It is suggested that the rise in incapacity benefit claims related to mental or behavioural problems is directly linked to the decrease in claims for back problems and this is due to doctors being more likely to diagnose mental problems as they have less of a stigma than previously for patients. It is therefore possible, that there has been no actual increase in the amount of stress related illness, rather that it is now called that whereas previously people reported one of the symptom of stress which was back pain (Personnel Today magazine 2005). The difficulties in determining whether a reported illness is merely symptom of the deeper underlying problem of stress leads to questions being raised as to amount of stress experienced by today’s workers. Charlesworth (1984) suggests that â€Å"as many as 75% of all medical complaints are stress related† in the United States. Methodolgy The questionnaire was divided into two parts. The first section was asked only of those in senior management positions such as general managers and personnel managers. This was done to determine organisational policies, procedures and measurement of stress. The second set of questions was asked of everybody and included the senior managers so that the effects of stress on them could also be measured. The questionnaire was sent out to variety of business types including catering, production and financial services. The objective was to gain an overall view of the effects of stress on businesses, not to concentrate on those industries which have been classed as particularly stressful as this would have given a distorted view. A limitation of this approach is noted however, as being that some of the respondents indicated low levels of stress or no stress at all and may have therefore been unable to answer all the questions from personal experience. The main objective of the questionnaire was to collect information on the effects of stress in the workplace, the cost of stress and the benefits of a stress free environment. The questionnaire included admixture of quantitative questions to determine factual information and qualitative questions to collect opinions. As the research did not want to suggest answers to the respondents, all the questions were asked aspen questions. Providing multiple-choice answers may have had detrimental effects on the replies received, as it would provide options the respondent may not have considered. However, it is accepted that there may have been an effect in that people did not realise that point was relevant. For example, in the question regarding the symptoms of stress, the respondents might not consider backache unless it was suggested to them. Two exceptions to this were question nine in the manager’s questionnaire and question eight in the general questionnaire which examined the respondents views on the sources of work-related stress given by NIOSH (cited in Salter et al 1999). The replies given to all the other questions were then categorised byte writer. When collating the replies on managing stress, the guidelines set out by the Health and Safety Executive were used and the writer determined which category the answer came under (demands, support, control, policies, role and change). It is accepted that this was a potential weakness in this part of the questionnaire as it was based on the writer’s opinion. The questionnaire was distributed in a postal format to non-senior managers following personal visits to the organisations to conduct separate survey with the senior managers and to gain their consent. Whilst this method has benefits in that respondents would be more likely to be honest as the replies were anonymous (except for those in specific management positions), there are also drawbacks in that a low response rate was expected. To overcome this, the number of questionnaires sent out allowed a population sample of one hundred tube expected with a return rate of 20%. The actual number returned was seventy-five. The questionnaire was conducted on a face-to-face basis for the management roles, as it was important that their questionnaires were returned to provide important information as to policies and procedures. This resulted in a 100% return rate of management surveys. The responses from the general questionnaire were subdivided into those from management and non-management with the supervisors being defined as managers. This allowed better analysis of the results. Where appropriate, it is indicated whether the respondents were manual workers, office based and/or customer facing as this is seen as being relevant to the research. As stated earlier, as the purpose of the research was not to determine which job sectors are more stressful, the results do not differentiate between organisations. Questionaire Managers 1. What do you understand by the word â€Å"stress†? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents An inability to cope with something that causes panic 4 31 Anxiety 5 38 Fear of failure or not being able to continue 7 54 Depression 2 15 When you have too much to do and not enough time or resources to do it 8 62 When you cannot remain rationale about a situation 2 15 Losing control 1 8 Don’t know 0 0 2. What causes stress? Answer Number of respondents % of respondents Too much to do and not enough time to do it 6 46 Different things for different people 4 31 Don’t know 2 15 Other 1 8 3. What would indicate to you that an employee is suffering from work related stress? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Through being absent and giving stress as the cause 10 77 They would submit a grievance 1 8 They would tell their manager 1 8 Other 0 0 Don’t know 1 8 4. Do you or your organisation, actively measure stress levels amongst your employees, and if yes, how? Answer Number of respondents Percept of respondents Absenteeism reported as due to stress 10 77 Performance measures 1 8 Combination of these 1 8 Do not actively measure 1 8 5. How do you evaluate the success of any interventions to reduce stress? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Look for a reduction in absenteeism with stress given as the reason 12 92 Don’t measure 0 0 Staff surveys 1 8 Don’t know 0 0 6. Where is the emphasis of your efforts to manage stress Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Reducing or eliminating the causes of stress 1 8 Helping employees to modify their appraisal of the stressfulness of situations 0 0 Helping employees in coping more effectively with stressors and their consequences 2 15 Managing attendance issues 8 60 None of these 0 0 No effort 0 0 Don’t know 2 15 7. How do you balance people’s needs for challenge and achievement under pressure with ensuring they are able to cope? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents By setting realistic targets 9 69 By allowing people to work at a rate they feel comfortable with 0 0 By asking them 0 0 By identifying when stress occurs and reducing it 2 15 Bu setting consistent expectations 2 15 Other 0 0 Don’t know 0 0 8. What do you feel are the main causes of stress in life in general? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Financial problems 10 77 Relationship problems 6 46 Peer pressure 2 15 Work 3 25 Traffic 7 54 Concerns over the environment 3 25 Concerns over politics 4 30 Concerns over war or terrorist attacks 4 30 Concerns over family members 9 75 Don’t know 0 0 9. Which of the following factors do you believe cause stress to your employees in your workplace? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Workload – too much or not enough 2 15 Pace/variety/meaningfulness of work 6 46 Autonomy 2 15 Shift work/hours of work 3 23 Physical environment (noise/air quality etc.) 2 15 Isolation at the workplace (e.g. working alone) 0 0 Role conflict 0 0 Role ambiguity 0 0 Level of responsibility 0 0 Under/over promotion 0 0 Job security 0 0 Supervisors 0 0 Co-workers 0 0 Subordinates 0 0 Threat of violence 0 0 Participation in decision making 0 0 Management style 0 0 Communication patterns 0 0 None of these 0 0 10. What are your legal obligations in terms of identifying and managing work-related stress? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents There aren’t any 7 54 Comes under HASAW Act 2 15 Have to complete risk assessments which includes assessing possible sources of risk 1 8 Other 0 0 Don’t know 3 23 11. What are the HSE standards that organisations should use to identify and manage stress? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Don’t know 13 100 Could name all six 0 0 Could name five 0 0 Could name four 0 0 Could name three 0 0 Could name two 0 0 Could name one 0 0 12. What actions do you take under each of the HSE standards: Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Demands 7 54 Support 6 46 Control 4 31 Policies 7 54 Role 0 0 Change 5 38 Other 0 0 Don’t know 0 0 a. demands – ensuring employees do not become overloaded and unable to cope with the amount of work they are asked to do (job design, flexible hours and training) b. support – management style and degree of intervention c. control – allowing employees to have input into how they complete their tasks d. relationships – personnel policies on grievance, poor performance etc. e. role induction, objectives f. change – managing change 13. How would one of your employees alert management if they were experiencing work-related stress? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Through grievance procedure 8 62 During appraisal 7 54 Through formal representatives e.g. union of employee consultative committee 4 31 Would just say 0 0 Don’t know 0 0 Other 0 0 14. What are the symptoms of stress? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Being absent from work 4 31 Panicking 4 31 Nervousness 2 15 Heart problems 1 8 Crying 7 54 Alcohol and drug use 6 46 Accidents in the workplace 1 8 Don’t know 0 0 Other 15. What is the absence rate in your organisation? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents 0 – 2% 7 69 2 – 4% 5 8 4 – 6% 0 8 6 8% 1 15 Don’t know 0 0 16. What percentage of this absence level is due to stress related illnesses? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Less than 10% 9 69 More than 10% but less than 30% 1 8 More than 30% but less than 50% 1 8 More than 50% but less than 75% 2 15 More than 75% 0 0 Don’t know 8 62 17. What is the financial impact of stress in your workplace? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Calculated the same as any absence from work 13 100 Don’t measure 0 0 Don’t know 0 0 18. What do you include when you measure the financial impact of stress which you do not include when measuring the cost of other reasons for absenteeism: Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Reduced productivity 0 0 Employee turnover 0 0 Absenteeism 0 0 Medical costs 0 0 Recruitment 0 0 Use of temporary staff 0 0 Retraining costs 0 0 Loss of production 0 0 Poor customer service 0 0 None 13 100 19. Which level of employee do you feel is more susceptible to stress in your organisation? Answer Number of respondents Percentage of respondents Senior managers only 0 0 Blue collar workers only 3 23 Middle managers only 0 0 All management levels 8 62 Everyone is equally susceptible 2 15 Don’t know 0 0 20. What type of